Money Makes The World Go Round English Literature Essay

Money Makes The World Go Round English Literature Essay The quotation money makes the world go round was first used in a musical play Cabaret, it was written in the 1960s. the play was a melancholy one, in one of the songs the female lead expresses her wish for love, the male protagonist replies with this line in the song. The main aim of this line was to say that it is money that makes the world turn, not nobility or love. It highlights the fact that our society is heavily dependent on money.  [1]  Charles Dickens further stresses this point in his novel Dombey and Son where Paul asks his father about the powers of money. Hisfather replies it can do everything, little Paul then intelligently questions his dad as to why money did not save his mother. Charles Dickens very clearly portrays both sides of the argument. The phrase basically means that everything in this world would stop without money. To some extent this statement is true because without money you cannot afford a shelter on your head, have food, go from point A to point B, etc. It is often said that money can take you places, in many instances it proves true because money can and often does open up many doors for a person. However, in todays world we are all too preoccupied with the notion of acquiring wealth, so much so that other aspects of life that are equally important are neglected. The main reason behind this is our distorted view of success. The word success is usually taken to mean material success; the more the money the more successful one is. This includes the amount of money one earns, the type of car he drives or the size of his house. The importance of money becomes very clear when a person has no money, Money for a poor person is everything, it becomes very important for him to earn so that he can fulfill his basic needs. However, recently everyone has become consumption oriented. We want to buy anything that is new on the market and catches our interest and we are falling prey to the attractive packaging and advertisiments of a product. Thus we buy things that we have little need for which in turn makes us want more money. Money enables us to afford a better quality of life; more money means bigger and better houses and cars, better quality products, better entertainment etc. Another advantage is less stress in paying bills and other household expenses. Money may also allow a person to persue his dreams, for example a person who wants to attain higher education may not be able to without money. Literature also supports this in many places, one such example is where Charles Dickens in another Novel A Christmas Carol  [2]  shows how love is pushed aside for money. This happens when young Ebenzer Scrooge had made a promise to a girl Belle to provide for her, however Belle chooses a crooked businessman Jacob as he offers her a quick gain of fortune to the girl. A number of quotations from the book the great Gatsby by F.Scott Fitzgerald  [3]  also highlight the importance of money. One such quote mentioned the effect that money has on Gatsby when he is unable to even speak in front of Daisy Buchnan as he gets intimidated by her wealth. This shows how wealth encompasses every aspect of our lives, so much so that it even reflects in the voice and mannerisms of a person. Another description from the same book is about a character Tom whose wealth has given him a lot of power. It allows him to treat others how ever he likes and his elitist nature also makes him condescending towards other people. Thus another thought is that wealth gives one power. Money may be a motivator it influences human activity from geological exploration to politics. Money itself may not be evil, it is the greed for money that becomes the root of evil. Despite popular arguments I believe that money does not make the world go around. we have created the monster and allowed it to take over and control our lives.  [4]  Even though money does have some importance in our lives as every aspect of our lives revolves around money, but if we tried to be content with less we may not face such dependency. The variety of products that we are faced with makes it very difficult for us to be content with what we have. We have made money so central to our lives that we place it above life and even happiness. This never ending pursuit of money has made the society a selfish one. People forget that there are many things that money cant buy. A Chinese proverb summarizes this argument very well by saying that money can buy a house but it cannot make a home, that it can not buy time, sleep knowledge, health, respect and a good life only the material aspects can be bought but not ones that come from within. Stephen R. Covey in his book seven habits of highly effective people also mentions that some of us tend to be centered around money and so our sense of security and happiness is directly related to how much money we have and since its human nature to never be satisfied with what one has he is likely to remain unhappy most of the time. Even a huge increase in wealth is unlikely to satisfy such a person. For this purpose we need to alter our centres to what we really want at the end of our lives. Money can buy a lot of things but it cannot buy good health, respect, love, inner peace etc as these only come from good principles. A person can have million in his bank account but still feel poor because he is not content with his life, more money gives him only minimal satisfaction. Security come from within from knowing that what you have is enough for you to be happy, it comes from believing in your self. All of us tend to think that happiness comes from outside i.e. through money. A short story that supports this notion is A Christmas Memory by Truman Capote it is the story of a child who does not get anything for Christmas except handed down and worn out except for a kite but he is still satisfied and goes out to fly it. In another instance was when the family was offered money for a new Christmas tree but they refused it believing that their old tree was more precious and nothing could replace it. Both these examples reflect the importance of contentment and satisfaction ove r money. One important error that we make is that we equate money with success, this is not true. Success can be divided into 8 categories, these are: health, personal needs, family, career, spiritual, financial and community. To be truly successful you need to be more than just financially successful. There have been many cases whereby a rich man was unable to spend all his fortune due to his health and died despite his accumulated wealth. Such a man cannot be called wealthy as all that he accumulated was left behind, and it was not able to help him when he needed help the most. Thus a rich person who lacks in other aspect of life is as good as being poor. Let us not get carried away with the idea of acquiring wealth and money and fail to consider other aspects of our life.

Formaldehyde: History and Importance

Formaldehyde: History and Importance 1.0INTRODUCTION Formaldehyde is the first member of the aldehyde family (CH2O) and is the most important aldehyde in the environment.3 It is a naturally occurring chemical and a by-product of most organisms, including human, industrial and natural processes. Formaldehyde forms from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials; smoke from forest fires, in automobile exhaust, and in tobacco smoke. Atmospheric formaldehyde is formed by the action of sunlight and oxygen on methane and other hydrocarbons.2 Due to its simple nature, metabolic processes break formaldehyde into carbon dioxide. Formaldehyde does not accumulate in the environment or within plants, animals or people, as it quickly breaks down in the body and the atmosphere.1 It has a pungent odour and is an irritant and is an irritant to eyes, nose and throat, even at low concentrations. The recommended odour detection limit is between 0.05 1ppm.3 Formaldehyde is an important industrial chemical and is employed in the manufacture of many industrial products and consumer articles. More than 50 branches of industry now use formaldehyde, mainly in the form of aqueous solutions and formaldehyde-containing resins. In 1995, the demand for formaldehyde in the three major markets Northern America, Western Europe, Japan was 4.1ÃÆ'-106 t/a [Chem. Systems Inc.: Formaldehyde (April 1996).]. History of Formaldehyde Research in the early 1800s by Liebig discovered the chemical composition and nature of various aldehydes excluding formaldehyde due to the ease with which methanol was oxidized to formic acid and further synthesized to carbon dioxide and water.5 In 1859, Alexandra Mikhailovich Butlerov inadvertently discovered formaldehyde as a result of his proposed synthesis of methylene glycol [CH2 (OH)2]. During his laboratory experiment, Butlerov observed the distinctive odour of the formaldehyde solution while hydrolysing methylene acetate, which decomposed to form formaldehyde and water. 5 He also produced formaldehyde in other forms which led him to publish a detailed report of formaldehyde solution, its gas and polymer. He gave additional evidence of its structure and described the chemical reactions together with the creation of hexamethylenetetramine, [(CH2)6N4] on reacting with ammonia, (NH3). The main way by which formaldehyde is still being produced till date was discovered by A.W. Hofmann but with other catalysts. In 1868, Hofmann made a successive breakthrough by passing a mixture of methanol and air over a heated platinum spiral. This process is currently industrialised by use of a metal catalyst. Over two decades later, the isolation and purification of formaldehyde was achieved by Friedrich Von Stradonitz (1892). 4 1882 marked two significant improvements in formaldehyde research. Kekule then described the preparation of pure formaldehyde and Tollens discovered a method of regulating the methanol vapour: air ratio, thereby affecting the yield of the reaction.6 The spiral platinum catalyst was replaced with more efficient copper gauze in 1886 by Leow. Commercial manufacture of formaldehyde was initiated by a German firm, Mercklin and Losekann in 1889 with the first use of silver catalyst patented by Hugo Blank, another German company in 1910. 6 Industrial development continued from 1900 to 1905, when plant sizes, flow rates, yields, and efficiency were increased. In 1905, Badische AnilinSoda-Fabrik (BASF) started to manufacture formaldehyde by a continuous process employing a crystalline silver catalyst. Formaldehyde output was 30 kg/d in the form of an aqueous 30 wt% solution. The methanol required for the production of formaldehyde was initially obtained from the timber industry by carbonizing wood. The development of the high-pressure synthesis of methanol by BASF in 1925 allowed the production of formaldehyde on a true industrial scale. 6 Importance of Formaldehyde For several decades, formaldehyde has been used consistently in a wide range of products, ranging from personal hygiene, to medicine, to building products and much more. Many different resins are created from formaldehyde, which are in turn used to create other materials having different properties. Formaldehyde derivatives are used as preservatives in personal hygiene products because they kill bacteria or they are used to make other products more effective in terms of foaming action such as soaps and detergents. Its versatile chemistry and unique properties have created applications for use of formaldehyde in all kinds of every day products such as plastics, carpeting, clothing, resins, glues, medicines, vaccines and the film used in x-rays. One of the first benefits you derive from formaldehyde chemistry is as a child, when you received your vaccinations for childhood diseases. These include diphtheria, polio and influenza, to name a few. Since it also acts as a preservative, formaldehyde plays a critical role in our medical schools, preserving cadavers used in teaching human anatomy. It has been used for tissue and organ preservation for more than a century and has greatly assisted the advance of biological science.1 Importance of Green Processes The concept of Green Chemistry helps reduce or eliminate the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and application of chemical products. This helps in dealing with the ever growing increase to protect the environment and the concept of sustainability. A lot of emphasis is based on the research and development phase of each chemical or product, to curtail issues affecting human health and environmental pollution. For every chemical or given product, the following guidelines should govern the choice of route:7 * Choice of feed-stock (costs are relevant of course, but also total resources, energy, waste, etc. in the manufacture of the given feed-stock are important factors) * Choice of reaction path (minimise energy requirements by use of selective catalysts) * Choice of catalyst (efficiency, separation from product, recycling of catalyst) * Down-stream processing/unit operations (minimising the number of stages necessary to obtain the product in the state desired by the customer) * Minimising not only the amount pollutants, but also the volume of waste streams (effluent/ off-gases and solid waste) * Recycling of auxiliary, side-, and intermediate products into the process. This report focuses on physical and chemical properties of formaldehyde (CH2O), its production processes and evolution through time as it tries to conform to some of the principles of green chemistry. 2.0PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS FORMS OF FORMALDEHYDE Formaldehyde is more complicated than many simple carbon compounds because it adopts different forms. Formaldehyde is a gas at room temperature, but the gas readily converts to a variety of derivatives. These derivatives generally behave similarly to gaseous formaldehyde and are used in industry.4 Physical Properties I. Monomeric formaldehyde: This form of formaldehyde [50-00-0], CH2O is a colorless gas that has a foul, overpowering odour and is an irritant to eyes, nose, throat and skin. Monomeric formaldehyde liquefies at -19 °C, and solidifies at -80 °C to give a white paste. The liquid and gas phases polymerise readily at low and normal temperatures up to 80 °C. Pure formaldehyde gas, on the other hand, does not polymerise between 80 100 °C and behaves as an ideal gas. Though it is not commercially available in this form, it can be prepared in the laboratory by the Spencer and Wilde method.6, 3 The molecular formula of gaseous formaldehyde in ambient air is shown below. II. Trioxane: 1, 3, 5- Trioxane is a stable cyclic trimer of formaldehyde, C3H6O3. It appears as a white solid with a chloroform-like odour but does not cause any form of irritation to living things. The pure form of trioxane melts at 61 62 °C boils at 11 °5C and has a flash point of 45 °C. Trioxane is used as a feedstock for some plastics, solid fuel tablet formulas and as a stable source of formaldehyde in laboratories.8, 3 III. Paraformaldehyde: this is a colourless, granular solid with a pungent and irritating smell. It is prepared by condensation of methylene glycol (HOCH2 OH), and its composition is best expressed by the formula HO- (HCHO) Q-H. Paraformaldehyde melts over a wide temperature range (120-170C), which depends on the degree of polymerization. It has similar uses to formaldehyde; it is commonly used as a source of formaldehyde for disinfecting large areas.3 IV. Formalin: The primary market for formaldehyde is in aqueous form, Formalin. It is a clear solution with the characteristic odour of formaldehyde. Methanol is normally present, 6-15%, to suppress polymerisation. In aqueous phase, the dominant form of formaldehyde is methylene glycol and polyoxymethlene glycol for concentrated solutions.3 Chemical Reactions of Formaldehyde I. Decomposition: In thermal decomposition, formaldehyde is relatively stable. At 150C, formaldehyde undergoes heterogeneous decomposition to form methanol and carbon dioxide. Above 350C, the reaction decomposes to form carbon dioxide hydrogen. Catalysts such as platinum, copper, chromium and aluminum are involved in this decomposition reaction to form methanol, methyl formate, formic acid, carbon dioxide and methane.6 2HCHO à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢CH3OH+CO HCHO à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢CO+ H2 II. Polymerisation: At room temperatures and very low pressures, formaldehyde monomer vapours tend to polymerise while at higher temperatures, monomeric HCHO can be maintained readily for several hours without polymerisation at an equilibrium vapour pressure. In the aqueous phase, formaldehyde is oxidized readily by even mild oxidizing agents, such as Ag(NH3)2+, and this property has been exploited in the development of several wet-chemical analytical methods for formaldehyde.3 III. Reduction and Oxidation Reactions: Formaldehyde is readily reduced to methanol with hydrogen over a nickel catalyst and is oxidized by nitric acid, potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate or oxygen to form formic acid or carbon dioxide, and water.6, 3 A Cannizzaro reaction occurs when formaldehyde reacts with a strong alkali or heated acid to form methanol and formic acid. HCHOaq+ NaOH à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢HCO2Na+ H2 H2+ HCHOaq à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢CH3OH In the presence of aluminum or magnesium methylate, paraformaldehydes react to form methyl formate. This is known as the Tischenko Reaction. 2HCHO polymerà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢HCO2CH3 IV. Addition Reactions: V. Condensation Reactions: Formaldehyde is a base product in many synthetic resin product.9 Formaldehyde condenses with urea, melamine, urethanes, cyanamide, aromatic sulfonamides and amines, and phenols to give a wide range of resins; Amino, Phenolic and Synthetic Resins.6 3.0METHODS OF PRODUCING FORMALDEHYDE Over the years, the starting feedstock for the commercial production of formaldehyde is Methanol. This feedstock has been produced by reacting carbon monoxide and hydrogen, both usually from natural gas or petroleum fractions, under high pressures in the presence of a catalyst.3 Various patents have been published for the production of formaldehyde but most with no commercial importance. Of all these, the procedure to be discussed is the reduction of carbon monoxide. 3.1Reduction of Carbon Oxides This process has been put through a lot of research due to its low cost of raw materials and potential simplicity. The end-product of this reaction is usually methanol with formaldehyde as an intermediate in the reaction. This process is a two-step reaction; part of the reaction is a simple hydrogenation process and the other, by the Cannizzaro reaction of formaldehyde with itself. The reaction with copper-alumina catalyst forms formaldehyde at temperatures of 282 487 °C and pressures of 117 410 atmospheres.10 CO+ H2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬ CH2O This reduction reaction is highly unfavorable as a means of formaldehyde synthesis due to the following reasons. * Unreasonable high pressures required to obtain high yields * To obtain equilibrium at a reasonable rate and avoid hydrogenation, an extremely active and selective catalyst would be required. 3.2Methanol and Formaldehyde Formaldehyde is industrially manufactured with methanol through three main processes.6 1. Partial oxidation and dehydrogenation with air in the presence of silver crystals, steam, and excess methanol at 680 720 °C (BASF process, 97 98 % methanol conversion). 2. Partial oxidation and dehydrogenation with air in the presence of crystalline silver or silver gauze, steam, and excess methanol at 600 650 °C (77 87 % primary conversion of methanol). The conversion is completed by distilling the product and recycling the unreacted methanol 3. Oxidation only with excess air in the presence of a modified iron molybdenum vanadium oxide catalyst at 250 400 °C (98 99% methanol conversion). Process 3, also known as the FORMOX process, a highly exothermic process, occurs at temperatures of about 350 °C. Though this process uses lower temperatures and a cheaper catalyst, the dehydrogenation process is still prevalent in the industry because of its lower operating costs.2, 3 Production of formaldehyde via conversion of propane, ethylene, propylene, butylene, ethers and butane are not economic therefore have little or no industrial relevance. In addition, the partial hydrogenation of CO and methane oxidation results in lower yields as compared to the former processes.6 3.3Development of the Methanol Process The initial method for the development of formaldehyde was originated from by Hofmann, which is the passing of a mixture of air and methanol over a heated platinum spiral and dissolution of this product to form aqueous formaldehyde, formalin.10 This process was replaced due to difficulties with explosions in completing the product recovery. Subsequent development involved the replacement of the platinum catalyst with platinised asbestos in a heated tube by Volhard. Further research by Tollens introduced the direct relationship between the methanol-air vapour ratio and the formaldehyde yield; which is still a main principle in todays industries. 10 Leow refined the two later processes by replacing the platinum catalyst with copper gauze. This initiated the first continuous process for formaldehyde production. The first stage of this process yielded about 15 20% formaldehyde, with an additional 30% conversion due to further heating of the reaction gases. 10 Though not aware at the time of the concept of green chemistry, research was carried out covering the preparation of catalysts, reaction times and temperatures, and product absorption during the early years of commercial development of formaldehyde. This led to technological development for the use of a silver catalyst by O. Blank in 1910. Thorough investigation with the use of this catalyst proved that higher yields were obtainable as to that of the copper catalyst. 10 Large scale manufacturing welcomed improvements in the method for vapourising alcohol, the scrubbing systems and in the control of the heat of reaction. The copper gauze was observed to disintegrate or fuse together with high air-methanol ratios. To tackle this issue, low ratios were introduced to help keep the catalyst active but this resulted in excess methanol distilled from the formaldehyde. 10 The progress made throughout the years has been achieved by the following: * Efficient catalysts * Improved methods of control * Implicit engineering economies 3.3.1Silver Catalyst Process This route is the classic method for the industrial production of formaldehyde. The two main reactions governed by this process are dehydrogenation and partial oxidation. The dehydrogenation of methanol is a highly endothermic, 650 °C, and heat of reaction is usually obtained from the burning of the hydrogen enclosed in the flue gas. These processes are usually carried out by reacting methanol and air over a heated stationary catalyst and scrubbing the off gases with water to obtain aqueous formaldehyde. 6 Addition of inert substances, water or nitrogen, aids conversion by using higher methanol concentrations relative to the oxygen supplied without reaching the explosive phase. A few key reactions take place during methanol conversion to formaldehyde. 3 CH3OH à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾CH2O+ H2 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  H= +84kJ/mol H2 +12O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ H2O à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  H= -243kJ/mol CH3OH+12O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ CH2O+ H2O à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  H= -159kJ/mol Methyl formate, methane and formic acid are important by products of the above reactions. Below are a few undesirable reactions that must be avoided by proper control of temperature and other factors to obtain high yields. CH2O à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ CO+ H2 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  H= +12.5kJ/mol CH3OH +32O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ CO2+ 2H2O à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  H= -674kJ/mol CH2O +O2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ CO2+ H2O à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  H= -519kJ/mol The usual process for the commercial production of formaldehyde is through the incomplete oxidation of the methanol. So far, this has been proven to be the most optimal process because the distilled methanol is recovered and recycled in the process. This results in higher yield, higher conversion and a high atom economy. 6, 10 The BASF Process This process involves the complete conversion of methanol to formaldehyde (Reaction 1). This process indirectly applied some of the principles of green chemistry. 6, 10 1. Few reaction steps 2. Recycling of materials within the production system to optimise product recovery resulting in a very high atom economy. 3. Environmental awareness with combusted off-gases having no adverse effect on the environment 4. The use of water as a solvent 5. Incorporation of all materials in the process, maximizing final product with extremely low weight percent of by-products formed 6. Optimum surface reaction with arrangement of catalyst 7. Process conditions adjusted to ensure that in retrieving of the final product, the mixture is easily stripped without scare of an explosion. Incomplete Conversion and Distillative Recovery of Methanol In this process, methanol is partially oxidised and distilled to recover formaldehyde. This is the most widely used method of production. It should be noted that an economically feasible process is not necessarily a green process. Partial oxidation of methanol has similar characteristics but differ with the following with respect to green chemistry. 6 1. Two-stage reaction 2. Lower reaction temperatures adopted in the first stage to help suppress the formation of unwanted by-products. 3. Heat of reaction generated from cooling the off gases, recycled in the system reducing energy requirements. 4. Larger amount of methanol is recovered in this process with little presence of the b-products 5. Similar off-gases as produced in the BASF process 6. It also has an alternative route that recycles the tail gas from the top of the absorber. This reduces the amount of feedstock, methanol, required in the process. This produces a more concentrated solution and saves up cost for the distillation process and the yield is relatively high (91-92%). Factors affecting the yield in methanol oxidation processes * The higher the temperature in a dehydrogenation reaction, the higher methanol is converted in the process system. 10,6 * Process air controls the desired reaction temperature and the extent to which the endothermic reactions occur. 10,6 * Besides catalyst temperature, the inert materials added as stated earlier also affect the yield. 10,6 Some of the advantages of the silver catalyst process are listed below:11 * Most cost effective means of manufacturing formaldehyde * Increased formaldehyde yield, methanol conversion and catalyst life * Reduced silver requirements * Greater resistance to plant upsets and poisoning * Improved formaldehyde product quality * Technology demonstrated worldwide 3.2.2FORMOX Process The FORMOX process is the direct oxidation of methanol with metal oxide catalysts (iron, molybdenum or vanadium oxide) to produce formaldehyde. Normally, the catalyst used for this process is a mixture of molybdenum and iron in a ratio of 1.5:2.0. Due to the development of this catalyst, a few advantages have been attributed to this process over the silver catalyst processes. This will be discussed in the later part of this report. The FORMOX process can be characterised as follows: 1. Two stage oxidation reaction in gaseous state. This prevents waste that would have been generated by use of a solvent.6 2. Reaction carried out under atmospheric pressure and at lower temperatures (270 400 °C), results in an almost complete reaction. 6 3. Careful adjustments of process conditions help prevent the formation of unwanted by-products. These side reactions occur at temperatures exceeding 470 °C. 6 4. The conversion rate for this process is relatively high with a high optimization process. 5. One short-coming of this process is with the tail gas that has lots of impurities and flammable components. The alternative route used instead of combustion is in the addition of fuel to the system which burns the tail gas as a supplement for energy in other start-up processes. 6 In summary, the green advantages of the three commercial processes can be summarised as follows: 7 1. Few unit operations 2. Waste is minimised by a highly selective reaction 3. Use of catalysts to optimise process reactions 4. Water used as the only solvent 5. Reaction carried out at atmospheric pressure 6. Gas-phase reaction for the FORMOX process means that catalyst does not have to be recovered from solution 7. Recovery of energy from exothermic reactions to help reduce environmental and economic impacts. 8. High conversion rates achieved through efficient use of equipment, energy and material 9. Use of air as oxidant instead of chemical oxidising agents reducing the toxicity and by-products formed. 3.3Development of New Processes Various research works have been carried out for developing new formaldehyde synthesis. Unfortunately, there has been no existence of commercial units of the techniques discussed below: 1. Partial oxidation of methane to produce formaldehyde which has an advantage of reducing raw material costs of producing the methanol from methane. The inducement for such a process is reduction of raw material costs by avoiding the capital and expense of producing the methanol from methane. 12 2. Production of anhydrous or highly concentrated formaldehyde solutions via dehydrogenation of methanol. In some instances, energy costs are reduced as well as effluent generation, and losses, providing a more favorable condition. 12 3. Formaldehyde production from methylal (produced from methanol and formaldehyde) which is in two phases. Firstly, methylal oxidation which yields up to 70% of the concentrated formaldehyde product as compared to methanol oxidation with 55%. After this, methylal is produced by reacting formaldehyde obtained in aqueous recycle streams from other units with methanol as opposed to recovery by other more costly means, e.g. distillation and evaporation. Development of this process is complete. 12 Further research is still being carried out in the use of bacteria to produce formaldehyde. This will not be discussed in this report. 4.0ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH FORMALDEHYDE REFERENCES 1. Formaldehyde Council, I. (2007, November). Formaldehyde: Facts and Background Information. Retrieved May 10, 2010, from http://www.formaldehyde.org/_base/pdf/fact_sheets/11_01_07-FormadehydeFactsandBackgroundInformation.pdf 2. Daily, C. (2004, April 01). The Chemistry Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from http://www.chemistrydaily.com/chemistry/Formaldehyde 3. Council, N. R. (1981). Formaldehyde and other Aldehydes. Washington, D.C, USA. 4. Wikimedia. (2010, May 02). Formaldehyde. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde 5. Harrison, K. (1998, July). Formaldehyde. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from 3d Chem: http://www.3dchem.com/molecules.asp?ID=101 6. Wiley, I. (2006). Formaldehyde. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from Ullmans Encyclopedia of IndustrialChemistry: http://mrw.interscience.wiley.com.resourceproxy.manchester.ac.uk/emrw/9783527306732/ueic/article/a11_619/current/pdf 7. Chuck, R. (n.d.). A Catalytic Green Process for the Production of Niacin. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from Lonza Group: http://www.lonza.com/group/en/company/news/publications_of_lonza.-ParSys-0002-ParSysdownloadlist-0026-DownloadFile.pdf/25_A%20Catalytic%20Green%20Process%20for%20the%20Production%20of%20Niacin.pdf 8. Wikimedia. (2010, April 15). Trioxane. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,3,5-Trioxane 9. Smith, S. (2010). What is formaldehyde resin? Retrieved May 07, 2010, from Wisegeek: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-formaldehyde-resin.htm 10. Walker, J. F. (1967). Formaldehyde. Wilmington, Delaware: Reinhold Publishing Corporation. 11. GFRT. (Updated 2010). Silver Catalysts. Retrieved May 07, 2010, from Global Formaldehyde and Resin Technologies: http://www.globalformaldehyde.com/silver.htm 12. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Formaldehyde, Vol12. John Wiley Sons.

The Role of Justice in Society Essay -- Just Justice Fair Philosophy E

The Role of Justice in Society Through the egalitarian reasoning of John Rawls and the act-utilitarianist perspective of J.J.C. Smart, I will analyze the concept of justice. In accordance with Rawls, I intend to argue that any changes in society that will increase the burden carried by the poorest 5% are unjust, even if these changes increase the average level of happiness for the other 95%. With regard to ethics, justice is defined as fairness, where all situations should be treated alike. For one to exhibit justice, one must portray the quality of being fair and reasonable in all situations. While egalitarians evaluate justice based on equality, utilitarians are only interested in justice as a means to an end. Smart advocates the principle of utility, which defines the morally action as whatever produces the greatest net happiness for everyone affected by that act. To identify an act as ‘just,’ Rawls employs the theory of justice as fairness. This theory stresses the principle of equal rights, and that an act is ‘just’ if equality is realized by everyone affected by the act.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before delving into John Rawls’ views on a ‘just’ society it is essential to understand his perception of the role of justice in society, as described in his book A Theory of Justice. Justice in society enforces individual’s rights and to â€Å"[deny] that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others†. When the notion of justice becomes shared by all citizens, and equality is achieved, civility between members of society will restrict the use of some individuals as means to personal ends. Overall, Rawls argues that the most distinctive role of justice in society is to equally distribute rights and duties to individuals. The underlying egalitarian viewpoint is that individuals do not possess any characteristics that would â€Å"justify inequalities in the distribution of social benefits and burdens†. The principles of justice, as depicted in Rawls book, are chosen by individuals an initial position of equality. These principles can be applied to solve structural issues in society such as the distribution of social and economic advantages, the distribution of basic rights and duties to citizens. Rawls argues that in order for the principles of justice to establish an ideal society, where equality between citizens is realized, several hypothetical ... ... interest while in pursuit of maximizing happiness. Overall I agree with the principles set forth by John Rawls in his book A Theory of Justice, because it protects against discrimination of the lowest 5 of the population whose voice is usually discredited and overlooked in society. Works Cited Bayles, Michael, ed. Contemporary Utilitarianism. Garden City: Anchor, 1968  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hoffman, Michael W, Robert E. Fredrick, and Mark S. Schwartz. Business Ethics Readings and Cases in Corporate Morality. 4th Canadian ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001 Lamont, Julian. "Distributive Justice." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2003 Edition). Main. Edward N. Zalta. 13 March 2004. . Nussbaum, Martha. The Enduring Significance of John Rawls. Evatt Foundation. 13 March 2004. Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. Revised Canadian Ed. Cambridge: The Belknap Press, 1971 Scott, Alex. John Rawls’ A Theory of Justice. 14 March 2003. Smart, and Bernard Williams. Utilitarianism: For and Against. Trowbridge: Redwood Burn, 1973 Utilitarianism Resources. BLTC Research. 15 March 2004. Williams, Jon. An Examination of John Rawls’s Critique of Utilitarianism. 13 March 2004

The Great Pyramid: Largest Pyramid in the World :: Expository Essays

The Great Pyramid: Largest Pyramid in the World The great pyramid was built during the reign of Khufu, 2nd king of the fourth dynasty (2,720-2,560 BC). It stands on the Giza plateau nearby Cairo and is the biggest pyramid in the world. It measures 230 m (756 ft) on each side of its base and originally measured 147 m (482 ft) high. Beginning in the 10th century AD the entire Giza complex served as a source of building materials for the construction of Cairo; as a result, all three pyramids were stripped of their original smooth outer facing of limestone. The core masonry consists of large blocks of local limestone taken from the nearby quarries and built around and over a rocky knoll. The size of the knoll cannot be determined, since it is completely covered by the pyramid. The entrance to the pyramid is in the center of the northern face. It is located in the thirteenth course of masonry from the base. This entrance has a pointed roof formed of massive slabs of local limestone and opens into a long steeply descending passage. From there a 36 meters long ascending passage leads to a 35 meters long horizontal passage that leads to the so called 'Queen's chamber'. This chamber measures 5.2 by 5.7 meters and the maximum height of its pointed roof is about 15 meters. The north and south walls each have a small hole a few centimeters square about 1 meter from the floor. These lead into narrow channels that originally opened on the exterior of the pyramid. At the juncture of the ascending and horizontal passage is an opening of a shaft which descends to a depth of 60 meters. It opens into the lower part of the descending passage, close to the unfinished, underground chamber, and is believed to have been an escape shaft for the workmen who filed the ascending passage with huge stones after the king's funeral. From the horizontal passage the Grand Gallery, which leads to the king's chamber, starts. It is 47 meters long and 8.5 meters high, and has a corbelled roof. In the center of the floor is a sunken ramp about 60 centimeters deep. The Grand Gallery ends in a horizontal granite passage which serves as an antechamber. It measures 8.4 meters long and 3.1 meters high, and has slots for three portcullises. Beyond the antechamber is the so-called 'King's Chamber' which is lined, roofed and paved with red granite. It measures 5.2 by 10.8 meters and is 5.8 meters high.

Essay --

Various meats is a significant source of proteins and fat in most diets. Substantial evidence from research has shown that meat intake, mainly meat, is associated with greater threats of issues including diabetes, cardiac arrest, and some forms of cancer. Numerous research suggest risky of death rate associated with meat intake. However, most of these research have been done in areas with a high amount of vegans (such as the Seventh Day Adventists in the U.S. and some research in Europe). A recent large cohort research with 10 decades of adhere to up discovered that a greater intake of complete meat and prepared meat was connected to risky of death rate. However, this research did not differ prepared and non-processed meat, and eating plan and other factors were only assessed at guideline. Furthermore, no research has so far examined whether replacement of other outlets for meat is connected with a reduced death rate threat. Therefore, they studied the organization between meat intake and complete and cause-specific death rate in two large cohorts with recurring measures of eating plan and up to 28 decades of follow-up: the Wellness Professionals Follow-up Study (HPFS) and Nurses' Wellness Study (NHS). They also approximated the organizations of replacing other sources of proteins for meat with complete and cause-specific death rate. In 1980, a 61 item FFQ was given among the NHS members to gather details on their normal intake of meals and drinks in the past year. In 1984, 1986, 1990, 1994, 1998, 2002 and 2006, almost the same but extended FFQs with 131 to 166 products were sent to these members to update their eating plan plan. Using the extended FFQ employed in the NHS, nutritional information was collected every 4 years starti... ... and veggies. Unprocessed and prepared meat intake was moderately relevant (0.40 in HPFS and 0.37 in NHS). However, meat intake was less relevant with intake of chicken or seafood. During the follow-up, meat intake declined in both men and ladies. For example, the common intake of natural meat came down from .75 to .63 servings per day from 1986 to 2006 in men, and dropped down from 1.10 to 0.55 servings per day from 1980 to 2006 in women. In conclusion, they discovered that a greater intake of natural and prepared meat is associated with a greater death rate threat. In contrast to meat, other nutritional elements, such as seafood, chicken, nut products, beans, low-fat milk products and whole grains, were associated with a reduced threat. These outcomes indicate that replacement of meat with substitute healthier nutritional elements may reduce the death rate threat.

Aifs Case Havard Business School Essay

1. What gives rise to the currency exposure at AIFS? 2. What would happen if Archer-Lock and Tabaczynski did not hedge at all? 3. What would happen with a 100% hedge with forwards? A 100% hedge with options? Use the forecast final sales volume of 25,000 and analyze the possible outcomes relative to the ‘zero impact’ scenario described in the case. complete the spreadsheet.. 4. What happens if sales volumes are lower or higher than expected as outlined at the end of the case? 5. What hedging decision would you advocate? ANS 1: American Institute for foreign Study (AIFS) had two divisions. 1. The College division, 2. High School travel division. From the college division the students are sent to different parts of the world for semester long courses. From the second division the high school students as well as their teachers are sent for 1-4 week trips worldwide. More than 50000 students are sent out of the country each year on academic as well as cultural exchange programmes. For these two events AIFS requires different currencies other than American dollars. When AIFS got major percentage of its revenue in American Dollars it has to expend most in Euros and British Pounds. If there will be any exchange rate volatility, there will be currency mismatch. This gives currency exposure at AIFS. Ans-2 If Archer-Lock and Tabaczynski would not hedge at all, they had to face the below three risks. i) Bottom line risk: When there will be an adverse move of the exchange rate, there may be an increase in the cost base. If dollar depreciates, they have to pay more for unit dollar of Euro. ii) Volume Risk: They have to buy foreign currency six months before keeping some predicted value of future sales in mind. If the actual value differs from the predicted one, there may be a chance of loss. iii) Competitive pricing risk: They fix their price through the catalog and once price is fixed it difficult to change the price even if there may be a depreciation of dollars. This may result in a huge loss to their business. Ans-3: Refer excel-sheet :QUES-3† Ans-4: Refer excel sheet: â€Å"4-Sales Volume 30000† and â€Å"4-Sales Volume 10000† Ans-5 According to Tabaczynski, the probability of the times that one gains from how the hedging is done, is same as one may losing by doing so in the long run. Hedging by options is a better way to do so as in adverse situations you will only lose the premium amount you have paid. At the same time the company has not to pay any premium and may be benefitted by using futures, but there is a fear of huge loss that can be avoided by using options. So we will advice AIFS to hedge 50% with options and 50% with futures. In this hedging, the loss from the one type of hedging will be compensated by the other to some extent.

Engineering Education in Ghana

2.2.4 EducationEducation serves as an engine for economic growing sunk the accretion of human capital. Education is potently associated with boosting degrees of societal capital ( Campbell, cc6 ) . the act or procedure of leaving or geting customary cognition, developing the powers of concluding and judgement, and by and coarse of fixing oneself or others intellectu totally in ally for suppurate life ( Dictionary.com, 2014 ) .2.2.5 ENGINEERING Education engineering science culture is the body process of learning cognition and rules related to the superior pattern of engineering. It complicates the initial instruction for release an applied scientist and any advanced instruction and specialisations that follow. applied science instruction is typically accompanied by extra scrutinies and supervised dressing as the demands for a passkey applied science licence.2.3 Technology Education IN g grizzly coast OVER THE YEARS engineering instruction in the so sumptuous Coast dates back to the 1930s. In August 1931, the Colonial Government communicate Achimota College in Accra to form an engineering class to develop Africans for senior assignments in the Public Works Department, the railroads and subsequently, the mines. The class, which was based on the external grade course of determine of the University of capital of the United Kingdom, consisted of four and a half old ages of survey at Achimota, followed by between three and four old ages of deliver up post-graduation practical fork step up. Initially, the class offered at Achimota lead to grades in electrical, mechanical and civil technology, scarce with the enlargement of activities in the excavation sphere of influence in the Gold Coast, it became demand for the train to spread out its class offerings to include excavation technology. In malice of the troubles it experienced, the Achimota applied science nurture managed to persuade out a sum of 25 applied scientists in front the s tart of the Second World war remotegon compelled it to close down. These applied scientists were to play scarlet tanager functions in the prompt post-in searc and so development of gold coast and as well as served in other African states every smirch beneficial as working for inter national bureaus. With the constitution of the University College of the Gold Coast in Legon, Accra in 1948, university instruction was phased out of the Achimota College campus. Unfortunately, no planning was made for the transportation of the technology classs to the young University College, therefore the cookery of applied scientists was fitful between 1948 and 1952 when a School of Engineering was once more established as portion of the new Kumasi College of Technology and the equipment, and approximately staff of the Achimota Engineering School transferred to Kumasi to organize the karyon of the new shoal. From 1952 to 1955, the School of Engineering prep atomic number 18d its disciples for rank of the assorted passe-partout Institutions in the United Kingdom. The formal preparation of alumnus applied scientists of assorted specialisations commenced in 1955 in particular relationship with the University of capital of the United Kingdom and scholars were prep ard to take Partss I, II and terzetto of the University of London Bachelor of Science ( Engineering ) External grade scrutinies. The first professional applied scientists produced by the Kumasi School of Engineering, who were all civil applied scientists, graduated with the university of London External B.Sc. ( Eng. ) grade in June 1959. The School of Engineering began to present its ain technology grades in June 1964.2.3.1 Technology Education FOR interior(a) DEVELOPMENTRelevance of technology plans to the demands of industry has sometimes been construe as a state of personal business in which the merchandises of an technology plan ar to be trained to be of immediate usage to industry after diminished or no post-graduation preparation. Pressures, hence, be give to be put on African technology modules to thin down on the nitty-gritty of the theoretical facets of their classs in spare of vocational facets push per unit areas which are, in bend, frequently ferociously resisted by technology pedagogues. Yet, technology plans in African Universities stand to derive enormously when there is dynamic co-operation between technology pedagogues and the chief consumers of technology work force based on super C regard and come about jab of the functions of the assorted stakeholders. It is overly anticipated that the technological spread between the developed and the underdevelop universe go out go however wider in the ordinal Century, therefore, doing technology preparation hitherto more situation-specific. This will stipulate that Ghana will hold to depend even more on her national establishments for the preparation of the technology work force relevant to their developm ent demands. It will, hence, be necessary for the professional associations and the preparation establishments in Africa to co-operate even more closely in specifying the content of the technology course of study of the twenty-first Century.2.4 DESIGNING AN ENGINEERING SCHOOL2.4.1CONDUSIVE TEACHING EnvironmentTo foresee the assorted jobs educatees and lecturers face in the school way of life, it is of showcase to set into circumstance the agreement of the school mode. fierce 2009 indicates that, the sensual agreement of class boards plays a leading(predicate) function in the character be of pupils and goes a long manner in bettering the academic public presentation of pupils. If a schoolroom is non good physical bodyed, it affects the end berth of intersection of pupils, hence hindering on the life for which talks are intended. The research on schoolroom environments suggests that schoolrooms should be organized to match a assortment of activities by dint ofout the cardinal hours and to run into the t for each oneers instructional ends ( Savage, 1999 Weinstein, 1992 ) . The criterions for finding what spacial lay-out is most hold to carry through these maps include slipway to maximise the instructors efficiency to see and be seen by all his or her pupils ease easiness of bowel movement throughout the schoolroom minimize distractions so that pupils are best able to actively prosecute in faculty members tot up each pupil and the instructor with his or her ain personal unnumerable and guaranting that each pupil can see presentations and stuffs post in the schoolroom. Seating agreement in talk halls are real measurable since it indicates whether there will be societal exchanges in the category is task behaviorally delighting. It is besides really important to forestall high gear employment countries in schoolroom designs, such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as waste basket countries. Critically, it is really of import that, pupils have a clear position of the lector at every point in clip ( fin et al. , 2000 ) . In making so, the lector should besides be giving freedom in his accomplishment through the talk room or schoolroom. There is some campaign that it is utile to restrict ocular and audile stimulation that may deflect pupils with attend and behaviour jobs ( Bettenhausen, 1998 Cummings, Quinn et al. , 2000 ) . The physical agreement of the schoolroom can function as a powerful setting event for provide pupils effectual direction and facilitate ( or inhibit ) positive instruction or learning interactions. As with other facets of direction, the physical agreement of the schoolroom should be contemplative of the diverse cultural and lingual features of the pupils and be consistent with specific scholar demands.2.4.2 STAIRWAYSStairwaies are seen as connections between at least two different degrees. Vertical risers and even paces are connected to stairss over a inc byplay. It can besides be defined as a system of stairss by which people and objects may go through from one degree of a construction to another. One of the most critical separate of school traffic design is the staircase, which should be located in relation to the comprehensive traffic form, maintaining in head meat distribution, safety, finish of pupils between achievements and riddance of mystify traffic. The staircases should be designed for unsophisticated, fast, and safe communicate of male childs and misss. Stairways non merely supply entranceway to and from assorted floor degrees, but they are employ at every period for the perpendicular circulation of pupils altering categories. It is of import that staircases should be designed to guarantee that male childs and misss with books under their weaponries may walk side by side to void congestion a breadth of 4 pess 8 inches to 5 pess between bannisters is recommended. Stairwaies should be of fireproof building, taking straight to the out-of- g atewayss. They should be equipped with smoke-control installations, dividing the stairwells from the corridors which they serve.2.4.3 CorridorA well-designed school has corridors that accommodate the free and unceremonial motion of pupils. The narrow corridor normally requires formal, regimented, and supervised traffic be given. The jettys of corridors should be free of all projections. combust units, imbibing fountains, fire asphyxiators, cabinets, gates, and show instances should be recessed in the involvement of pupil safety. Acoustic belongingss are desirable to cut down hall fraudulent scheme. Corridors should be good lighted, with exigency proviso in the event of chief power failure. Floor covering fire should be lasting, nonskid, and easy to keep. The maximal distance of unbroken corridors should non transcend 150 pess to 200 pess longer subdivisions give an undesired position.2.5 titular SPACES2.5.1 CLASSROOMSClassrooms have comparatively straightforward demands li ne of sight, good acoustics, and a focal point at the nominal head of the room component part as the platform for instructors to talk.Physical restraints such as the ability of pupils to phone number most in their seats, can restrict the victor of a designed schoolroom infinite. The room may be designed for pupil coaction. Seatings may be arranged in mated rows with specially design chairs that cease pupils to confront each other for coaction.aside from the schoolroom and formal infinites, educational establishments are besides designed with the proviso of informal infinites in head.2.5.2 OfficesThe finding of whether an office or cell will be delegate is based on an person s occupation description and place within the organisation. Factors such as confidentiality or tribute demands, figure of employees supervised and particular equipment demands will be evaluated. Offices should be placed high-priced the inside nucleus infinite. This increases the incursion of inwrought visible radiation syndrome into the building. When it is impractical to turn up offices right the inside nucleus, door running lights and borrowed visible radiations should be considered to transmit daytime into the interior infinites. Translucent glazing such as frosted or copy glass can be used if there is a ocular concealment demand. Offices located in the inside of the edifice infinite should be provided with a door or running light gathering or a borrowed visible radiation ( interior window ) in at least one wall at a tallness above the finished floor that allows ocular privateness man conveying visible radiation from the exterior.2.6 REQUIREMENTS OF lecture HALL SPACES( The followers demands of a schoolroom design have been taken from the University of Maryland, Baltimore County ordinary Lecture Hall Design Guidelines, and revise August 25, 2000 ) . Physical Access and causa The design shall take into history the flow of pupils both in and out of the infinite and w ithin the infinite every bit good as the demand for the teacher to travel about in the forepart of the room.1. Sufficient infinite is needed near the forepart of the room for puting up audiovisual aid equipment, such as projection screens and charts.2. Ceilings should be a upper limit of 9.5 pess high.3. hop out from Windowss should, if possible, come over a scholarly person s left shoulder. No lector should be required to confront the Windowss when turn toing the category from the normal teaching place.4. Ceilings and/or walls should be acoustically treated.5. Floors should hold a cushioning stuff.6. The schoolroom should hold as quiet a location as possible, off from noisy out-of-door countries. ministration of entree to specialise installations outside the academic unit should be ensured.2.6.1 DOORSThe flow of pupils should be the major factor in finding the location of entrywaies. Entrances should be located to avoid pupil traffic go throughing through non-instructional coun tries. In add-on, big Numberss of pupils going in corridors and hallways can bring forth undesired noise. In finding the size of entrywaies and issues, constructing codifications should non be the lone measuring. The flow of pupils in and out of suites can hold a major impact on size of entrywaies and issues. The design of entrywaies, issues, stepss, corridors, and exterior waies should take into history between-class pupil traffic. For illustration, it is non realistic to presume that a room will be wholly vacant when pupils begin geting for the following category. Provision should hence be made for vision panels in entryway doors. They could be tinted. Besides, proviso should be made for door Michigans to protect the wall surface.2.6.2 FLOOR, WALLS AND CEILINGSIn smaller schoolrooms, it is common to utilize vinyl composing tile or rug. carpet should be provided in all suites unless subject particular related classs dictate otherwise. The detonating device tallness is another of import consideration when planing the infinite. For illustration, because a projection screen essentialiness be big plenty to break dance images of equal size, it must be placed high plenty from the floor to supply unobstructed sight lines. This normally requires a ceiling tallness higher than the standard eight pess.2.6.3 NOISE CONTROLOther of import factors must be considered in the design. To avoid the noise generated by their operation and usage, peddling machines must be located as far off as possible. Trash and recycle containers should be located near the peddling machines. Restrooms and imbibing fountains should be located close and should be designed to manage pupil usage between categories. To forestall unwanted noise transmittal, public toilets should non portion common walls, floors, or ceilings with instructional infinites